Testing the validity of the “value of a prevented fatality” (VPF) used to assess UK safety measures

The “value of a prevented fatality” (VPF), the maximum amount that it is notionally reasonable to pay for a safety measure that will reduce by one the expected number of preventable premature deaths in a large population, is published by the UK Department for Transport (DfT). The figure, updated for changes in GDP per head, is used by the DfT, the Health and Safety Executive and other UK regulatory bodies as well as very widely in the process, nuclear and other industries as the standard by which to judge how much to spend to reduce harm to humans. The paper tests the validity of the 1999 study on which the VPF is based and finds that that study fails numerous tests of its validity. It is concluded that there is no evidential base for the VPF that has been used for many years in the UK and is still in standard use today. Given the difficulties evident in the interpretation of survey results, an urgent re-appraisal is needed of alternative statistical methodologies that can allow robust regulatory and industry safety decision making and, vitally, give adequate protection to the UK public and to those working in the UK's transport, process, nuclear and other industries.     

Numerical modeling of humic colloid borne americium (III) migration in column experiments using the transport/speciation code K1D and the KICAM model

The humic colloid borne Am(III) transport was investigated in column experiments for Gorleben groundwater/sand systems. It was found that the interaction of Am with humic colloids is kinetically controlled, which strongly influences the migration behavior of Am(III). These kinetic effects have to be taken into account for transport/speciation modeling. The kinetically controlled availability model (KICAM) was developed to describe actinide sorption and transport in laboratory batch and column experiments. Application of the KICAM requires a chemical transport/speciation code, which simultaneously models both kinetically controlled processes and equilibrium reactions. Therefore, the code K1D was developed as a flexible research code that allows the inclusion of kinetic data in addition to transport features and chemical equilibrium. This paper presents the verification of K1D and its application to model column experiments investigating unimpeded humic colloid borne Am migration. Parmeters for reactive transport simulations were determined for a Gorleben groundwater system of high humic colloid concentration (GoHy 2227). A single set of parameters was used to model a series of column experiments. Model results correspond well to experimental data for the unretarded humic borne Am breakthrough.     

Highly inhibited transport of dissolved thallium(I) in manganese oxide-coated sand: Chemical condition effects and retention mechanisms

Thallium contamination in water can cause great danger to the environment. In this study, we synthesized manganese oxide-coated sand (MOCS) and investigated the transport and retention behaviors of Tl(I) in MOCS under different conditions. Characterization methods combined with a two-site nonequilibrium transport model were applied to explore the retention mechanisms. The results showed that Tl(I) mobility was strongly inhibited in MOCS media, and the retention capacity calculated from the fitted model was 510.41 mg/g under neutral conditions. The retention process included adsorption and oxidative precipitation by the manganese oxides coated on the sand surface. Cotransport with the same concentration of Mn(II) led to halving Tl(I) retention due to competition for reactive sites. Enhanced Tl(I) retention was observed under alkaline conditions, as increasing pH promoted electronegativity on the media surface. Moreover, the competitive cation Ca²⁺ significantly weakened Tl(I) retention by occupying adsorption sites. These findings provide new insights into understanding Tl(I) transport behavior in water-saturated porous media and suggest that manganese oxide-coated sand can be a cost-effective filter media for treating Tl-contaminated water.     

Arsenic retention and transport behavior in the presence of typical anionic and nonionic surfactants

The massive production and wide use of surfactants have resulted in a large amount of surfactant residuals being discharged into the environment,which could have an impact on arsenic behavior.In the present study,the influence of the anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate(SDBS) and nonionic surfactant polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether(Triton X-100) on arsenic behavior was investigated in batch and column tests.The presence of SDBS and Triton X-100 reduced arsenic retention onto ferrihydrite(FH),enhanced arsenic transport through FH coated sand(FH-sand) columns and promoted arsenic release from the FH surface.With coexisting surfactants in solution,the equilibrium adsorbed amount of arsenic on FH decreased by up to 29.7% and the adsorption rate decreased by up to 52.3%.Pre-coating with surfactants caused a decrease in the adsorbed amount and adsorption rate of arsenic by up to 15.1% and 58.3%,respectively.Because of the adsorption attenuation caused by surfactants,breakthrough of As(Ⅴ) and As(Ⅲ) with SDBS in columns packed with FH-sand was 23.8% and 14.3%faster than that in those without SDBS,respectively.In columns packed with SDBS-coated FH-sand,transport of arsenic was enhanced to a greater extent.Breakthrough of As(Ⅴ) and As(Ⅲ) was 52.4% and 43.8% faster and the cumulative retention amount was 44.5% and 57.3% less than that in pure FH-sand column systems,respectively.Mobilization of arsenic by surfactants increased with the increase of the initial adsorbed amount of arsenic.The cumulative release amount of As(Ⅴ) and As(Ⅲ) from the packed column reached 10.8% and 36.0%,respectively.     

Cellular arsenic transport pathways in mammals

Natural contamination of drinking water with arsenic results in the exposure of millions of people world-wide to unacceptable levels of this metalloid. This is a serious global health problem because arsenic is a Group 1 (proven) human carcinogen and chronic exposure is known to cause skin, lung, and bladder tumors. Furthermore, arsenic exposure can result in a myriad of other adverse health effects including diseases of the cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, reproductive, and endocrine systems. In addition to chronic environmental exposure to arsenic, arsenic trioxide is approved for the clinical treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia, and is in clinical trials for other hematological malignancies as well as solid tumors. Considerable inter-individual variability in susceptibility to arsenic-induced disease and toxicity exists, and the reasons for such differences are incompletely understood. Transport pathways that influence the cellular uptake and export of arsenic contribute to regulating its cellular, tissue, and ultimately body levels. In the current review, membrane proteins (including phosphate transporters, aquaglyceroporin channels, solute carrier proteins, and ATP-binding cassette transporters) shown experimentally to contribute to the passage of inorganic, methylated, and/or glutathionylated arsenic species across cellular membranes are discussed. Furthermore, what is known about arsenic transporters in organs involved in absorption, istribution, and metabolism and how transport pathways contribute to arsenic elimination are described.     

Two-dimensional numerical modeling of Sr transport in an unsaturated Chinese loess under artificial sprinkling

⁹⁰Sr is a fission byproduct of uranium and plutonium, and it presents a major health problem in the environment. A field test on the transport of various radionuclides including ⁹⁰Sr in an unsaturated Chinese loess was conducted under artificial rain conditions from July 1997 to August 2000. The vertical concentration distribution of ⁹⁰Sr displayed an unusual profile of double concentration peaks, which were separated by a thin (0.7 cm) source layer. In order to interpret the double-peak concentration profile, the transport of ³H and ⁹⁰Sr in the unsaturated Chinese loess under artificial sprinkling conditions was simulated using WATERM, a numerical code for simulating flow field, and NESOR, also a numerical code but for simulating nuclide migration. The models were able to adequately simulate the double-peak concentration profile. The observation suggested that the fine arenaceous quartz layer, though 0.7 cm thick, formed a capillary barrier together with the local loess, which prevented water from penetrating. A significant discrepancy was observed between the model-fitted distribution coefficient (K_d) of ⁹⁰Sr and that determined from independent laboratory experiments, which can be attributed to a number of factors such as the capillary barrier effect, solution-to-solid ratio and soil water content. Therefore, when the model is used for predictive purposes where K_d is used as an input parameter, K_d must be determined under well controlled conditions by taking into account these factors as well as the heterogeneity in the field.     

Modelling radioactivity in the Irish Sea: From discharge to dose

In order to support authorised discharges of low level radioactive liquid effluent into coastal regions, mathematical models are required to robustly predict radiological impacts on critical groups of current and proposed changes to liquid discharges. The grid model presented here simulates the long term dispersion and transport of radioactivity discharged from the Sellafield site in Cumbria, UK, and the subsequent exposure of critical groups in Cumbria and across the Irish Sea in Northern Ireland. The fine grid of the model allows a good resolution of the seabed sediment distribution. This benefits the predictions for the last decades of low discharge level, when bed sediment can become a source of contamination by bringing back the legacy of past high discharges. This is highlighted by the dose comparison, where the predicted dose to Cumbria critical group follows well the dose estimated from environmental data during the low discharge level period.     

环境中多溴联苯醚(PBDEs)的代谢转化研究现状

多溴联苯醚(PBDEs)作为一种溴系阻燃剂(BFRs),在多种环境介质和生物体内广泛存在且浓度逐年增加,因而越来越多地受到研究者关注.综合PBDEs各方面研究报道,认为其在环境中存在生物和非生物两种转化方式.非生物转化主要是光降解,即PBDEs在光照条件下可通过自由基反应脱溴生成低溴同系物及多溴联苯呋喃(PBDFs).生物转化则包括微生物转化、生物体内转化和生物体外代谢,其转化代谢途径除脱溴外,还有醚键断裂、羟基化和羟基化/脱溴等.对PBDEs在环境中不同转化方式的转化速率、转化途径和转化产物等的研究现状进行综述,对今后PBDEs在环境中归趋、生态风险和健康评价研究将起到一定的指导作用.     

Fate and transport of carbamazepine in soil aquifer treatment (SAT) infiltration basin soils

The transport and fate of the pharmaceutical carbamazepine (CBZ) were investigated in the Dan Region Reclamation Project (SHAFDAN), Tel-Aviv, Israel. Soil samples were taken from seven subsections of soil profiles (150 cm) in infiltration basins of a soil aquifer treatment (SAT) system. The transport characteristics were studied from the release dynamics of soil-resident CBZ and, subsequently, from applying a pulse input of wastewater containing CBZ. In addition, a monitoring study was performed to evaluate the fate of CBZ after the SAT. Results of this study indicate adsorption, and consequently retardation, in CBZ transport through the top soil layer (0-5 cm) and to a lesser extent in the second layer (5-25 cm), but not in deeper soil layers (25-150 cm). The soluble and adsorbed fractions of CBZ obtained from the two upper soil layers comprised 45% of the total CBZ content in the entire soil profile. This behavior correlated to the higher organic matter content observed in the upper soil layers (0-25 cm). It is therefore deduced that when accounting for the full flow path of CBZ through the vadose zone to the groundwater region, the overall transport of CBZ in the SAT system is essentially conservative. The monitoring study revealed that the average concentration of CBZ decreased from 1094 ± 166 ng L⁻¹ in the recharged wastewater to 560 ± 175 ng L⁻¹ after the SAT. This reduction is explained by dilution of the recharged wastewater with resident groundwater, which may occur as it flows to active reclamation wells.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ash: determination of total and leachable concentrations

Before wood ash can be used as a soil fertilizer, concentrations of environmentally hazardous compounds must be investigated. In this study, total and leachable concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in four ash samples and one green liquor sludge. The ash sample with the highest carbon content also contained high levels of PAHs; three of the ash samples had total concentrations exceeding the limit permitted by the Swedish Forest Agency for recycling to forest soils. The leachable concentrations were higher for the non-stabilized samples; this was probably due to colloid-facilitated transport of the contaminants in these samples. However, the leachable concentrations were overall relatively low in all the samples studied. The amounts of PAHs introduced to forest soils by additions of stabilized, recyclable ash products will be determined primarily by the rate of weathering of the ash particles and the total concentration of contaminants.